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	<title>Andrew S. Erickson &#187; Journal Articles</title>
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	<description>China analysis from original sources</description>
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		<title>Domestic Politics will Buffet US-China Relations in 2012</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2012/01/domestic-politics-will-buffet-us-china-relations-in-2012/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2012/01/domestic-politics-will-buffet-us-china-relations-in-2012/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 26 Jan 2012 11:29:54 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “Domestic Politics will Buffet US-China Relations in 2012,” China-US Focus, 25 January 2012.
China and the U.S. represent each other’s single most important foreign relationship, yet also each other’s broadest array of foreign policy challenges. While interdependent, since the fall of the Soviet Union they have lacked a common external danger [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, <strong>“<strong><a title="Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “Domestic Politics will Buffet US-China Relations in 2012,” China-US Focus, 25 January 2012." href="http://www.chinausfocus.com/foreign-policy/domestic-politics-will-buffet-us-china-relations-in-2012/" target="_blank">Domestic Politics will Buffet US-China Relations in 2012</a></strong>,” </strong><em>China-US Focus</em>, 25 January 2012.</p>
<p><em>China and the U.S. represent each other’s single most important foreign relationship, yet also each other’s broadest array of foreign policy challenges. While interdependent, since the fall of the Soviet Union they have lacked a common external danger sufficient to incentivize deep cooperation. Now, with China’s rise, both countries are strong simultaneously for the first time. Significant potential exists for Sino-U.S. cooperation, but fundamental differences in political systems, interests, and perspectives will continue to create friction. In 2012, political transitions in both countries will connect bilateral issues to domestic opinion to an unprecedented degree.</em></p>
<p><em>Welcome to the “new normal” for U.S.-China relations. Now many challenges directly affect each country’s national interests and politics, yet cannot be easily sidestepped, finessed, or bargained away because of unprecedented participation of domestic actors. Examples include fundamentally different approaches to trade and economic policies, international norms, and relations with pariah states.</em></p>
<p><em>American hopes have dissipated rapidly that China would appreciate America’s post-1978 development assistance and simply embrace existing international norms as it developed economically, without seeking to change factors that it perceived to be unfair. China’s expectations of achieving space and influence on its own terms to right past wrongs have not been met. China’s already-limited willingness to reach accommodation with the U.S.—particularly on Asian issues—will probably decline further as it becomes even more powerful. Despite its coincidence with once-in-a-decade Chinese leadership transition, 2012 will signal challenges to come in Sino-American relations. …</em></p>
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		<title>China’s 2012 Challenges</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2012/01/chinas-2012-challenges/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2012/01/chinas-2012-challenges/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 09 Jan 2012 22:14:39 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[The Diplomat]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Andrew S. Erickson and Gabe Collins, “China’s 2012 Challenges,” The Diplomat, 8 January 2012.
China enters the New Year confronting challenges and opportunities that will be shaped in turn by how its government and populace respond to them. Here outlined are twelve key items and issues that will help define 2012 for China, both at home [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andrew S. Erickson and Gabe Collins, <strong>“<a title="Andrew S. Erickson and Gabe Collins, “China’s 2012 Challenges,” The Diplomat, 8 January 2012." href="http://the-diplomat.com/china-power/2012/01/08/chinas-2012-challenges/" target="_blank">China’s 2012 Challenges</a>,”</strong> <em>The Diplomat</em>, 8 January 2012.</p>
<p>China enters the New Year confronting challenges and opportunities that will be shaped in turn by how its government and populace respond to them. Here outlined are twelve key items and issues that will help define 2012 for China, both at home and abroad. 2012 will be a “two-level” year in which internal and external factors are linked ever-more-clearly. As a new generation of leadership prepares to govern China, millions of citizens and netizens and their foreign counterparts will be watching Beijing’s actions more closely than ever before.</p>
<p>1) <strong>The run-up to Beijing’s once-in-a-decade political transition in October 2012 is likely to generate intensified clampdowns internally and assertive rhetoric abroad as China faces rising domestic challenges, and finds itself constrained internationally. Fearful neighbors may further strengthen ties with the United States. Pariah/failed state “allies” North Korea, Pakistan, and Iran will likely experience problems that affect China’s own interests</strong>. Externally, China is likely to be more intransigent than before. Internally, Beijing will resist making difficult decisions about economic reforms, particularly reforms that might harm key state-owned enterprises and monopolistic/oligopolistic concerns connected with families of political elites. Domestically and internationally, Chinese leaders will attempt to postpone difficult policy decisions until after the transition.</p>
<p>2) <strong>Slowing economic growth will likely increasingly expose the flaws and unsustainable nature of China’s infrastructure-driven growth model.</strong>One local banking regulator cited by Minxin Pei claims only 1/3 of the investment projects currently under construction will produce cash flows large enough to cover their debt service burden. This may rapidly reduce economic growth and commodity demand in 2012. …</p>
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		<title>Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability’</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/12/through-the-lens-of-distance-understanding-and-responding-to-chinas-ripples-of-capability/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/12/through-the-lens-of-distance-understanding-and-responding-to-chinas-ripples-of-capability/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 21 Dec 2011 21:26:39 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Andrew S. Erickson, “Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability’,” Changing Military Dynamics In East Asia Policy Brief 10, January 2012, Project on the Study of Innovation and Technology in China, University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation.
Several pronounced trends are emerging as the United States moves [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andrew S. Erickson, <strong>“<a title="Andrew S. Erickson, “Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability,’” Changing Military Dynamics In East Asia Policy Brief 10, January 2012, Project on the Study of Innovation and Technology in China, University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation." href="http://igcc.ucsd.edu/assets/001/502847.pdf" target="_blank">Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability’</a><strong>,</strong>”</strong> <a title="Andrew S. Erickson, “Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability,’” Changing Military Dynamics In East Asia Policy Brief 10, January 2012, Project on the Study of Innovation and Technology in China, University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation." href="http://igcc.ucsd.edu/publications/igcc-in-the-news/news_20111220.htm" target="_blank"><em>Changing Military Dynamics In East Asia Policy Brief 10</em>, January 2012</a>, Project on the Study of Innovation and Technology in China, University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation.</p>
<p>Several pronounced trends are emerging as the United States moves  beyond its “unipolar moment,” the foremost among them being  the rise of developing powers and the proliferation of asymmetric technologies. The Asia-Pacific, with a rising China at its center, is the critical arena in which Washington must respond to these challenges. China’s unyielding stance on its present territorial and maritime claims and continued development of anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) capabilities are particularly worrisome. While it is premature to project a global power transition in which China eclipses U.S. power and influence, the United States needs to remain closely aware of and engaged in regional affairs to retain an influential role and remain a reliable security partner throughout the Asia-Pacific. This brief offers a set of force structure priorities for the United States as it grapples with China’s increasingly sophisticated capabilities.</p>
<p><em><a href="http://igcc.ucsd.edu/publications/igcc-in-the-news/news_20111220.htm" target="_blank">New Policy Brief Series on Changing Military Dynamics in East Asia Launched</a></em></p>
<p><em>The first of a new series of policy briefs based on the work of Project SITC researchers is now available for download.</em></p>
<p><em>“<a title="Andrew S. Erickson, “Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability,’” Changing Military Dynamics In East Asia Policy Brief 10, January 2012, Project on the Study of Innovation and Technology in China, University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation." href="http://igcc.ucsd.edu/assets/001/502847.pdf" target="_blank">Through the Lens of Distance: Understanding and Responding to China’s ‘Ripples of Capability’</a><strong>,</strong>” by Andrew S. Erickson of the U.S. Naval War College, examines several  trends that are emerging as the United States moves beyond its “unipolar moment.” The foremost, in Erickson’s estimation, are the rise of developing powers and the proliferation of asymmetric technologies. The Asia-Pacific, with a rising China at its center, is the critical arena in which Washington must respond to these challenges. The brief offers a set of force structure priorities for the United States as it grapples with China’s increasingly sophisticated capabilities.</em></p>
<p><em>The series is based on a September 2011 conference “Changing Military Dynamics in East Asia: Grand Strategic and Technological Drivers and the Implications for U.S. and Regional Security” sponsored by U.S. Naval War College and IGCC. This workshop explored the changing military dynamics and landscape in East Asia with particular focus on grand strategic and technological drivers and their implications for U.S. and regional security.</em></p>
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		<title>“Beijing’s ‘Starter Carrier’ and Future Steps: Alternatives and Implications”&#8211;Lead Article in Winter 2012 Naval War College Review</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/12/beijings-starter-carrier-and-future-steps-alternatives-and-implications/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/12/beijings-starter-carrier-and-future-steps-alternatives-and-implications/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 05 Dec 2011 23:23:17 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Andrew S. Erickson, Abraham M. Denmark, and Gabriel Collins, “Beijing’s ‘Starter Carrier’ and Future Steps: Alternatives and Implications,” Naval War College Review, 65.1 (Winter 2012): 14-54.
Just as a newlywed couple wants a “starter home,” a new great power wants a “starter carrier.” China’s navy has finally realized its longtime dream of obtaining an aircraft carrier [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andrew S. Erickson, Abraham M. Denmark, and Gabriel Collins, <strong>“<a title="Andrew S. Erickson, Abraham M. Denmark, and Gabriel Collins, “Beijing’s ‘Starter Carrier’ and Future Steps: Alternatives and Implications,” Naval War College Review, 65.1 (Winter 2012): 14-54." href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Erickson-Denmark-Collins_Beijings-Starter-Carrier_NWCR_2012-Winter.pdf" target="_blank">Beijing’s ‘Starter Carrier’ and Future Steps: Alternatives and Implications</a>,”</strong> <em>Naval War College Review</em>, 65.1 (Winter 2012): 14-54.</p>
<p><em>Just as a newlywed couple wants a “starter home,” a new great power wants a “starter carrier.” China’s navy has finally realized its longtime dream of obtaining an aircraft carrier and sending it to sea. This is the first step in a long journey that will change China’s navy and how it relates to the world.</em></p>
<p><em>At 5:40 AM local time on Wednesday, 10 August 2011, more than eighty years after the idea was originally proposed, China’s first carrier disappeared into the fog under tight security from Dalian harbor’s Xianglujiao Port, in northeast Liaoning Province, to begin sea trials in the Bohai and northern Yellow Seas. This was yet another coming-out party for China as a great power on the rise. Upon its launch, the nation burst with patriotic pride over the achievement. Major General Luo Yuan, deputy secretary-general of the China Society of Military Sciences, declared, “Well begun is half done. . . . [T]he effect of having something is completely different from the effect of having nothing.” Plans are under way to commemorate this new era of Chinese sea power, and to boost the economy further in the process. Tianjin, one of the country’s four municipalities, plans to do its part in October 2011 by opening China’s first aircraft carrier–themed hotel, based on </em>Kiev<em>, </em><em>once the Soviet Pacific Fleet’s flagship and now the centerpiece of the Tianjin Binhai Aircraft Carrier Theme Park. A Chinese flagship as capable as </em>Kiev<em> </em><em>once was remains far away, but Beijing has taken the first step and is already reaping added influence at home and abroad.</em></p>
<p><em>Before foreign strategists start hyperventilating about the “beginning of the end,” however, a deep breath is needed. China’s initial carrier foray followed a six-year refit and lasted only four days. China’s starter carrier—a vessel originally purchased incomplete from Ukraine in 1998—is of very limited military utility; it will serve primarily to confer prestige on a rising great power, help the Chinese military master basic procedures of naval airpower, and project a bit of military power—perhaps especially against the smaller neighbors on the periphery of the South China Sea. This is not the beginning of the end; it is the end of the beginning. To realize its ambitions for the future, China had to start somewhere.</em></p>
<p><em>Late in 2010, Admiral Liu Huaqing, the father of China’s modern navy, passed away. Liu had sought to build China’s navy first into a “green water” force and thereafter, eventually, into a “blue water” navy capable of projecting power regionally, though not globally. He insisted that he was not China’s Alfred Thayer Mahan, but his concept of “Near Seas defense” was roughly comparable to Mahan’s views on U.S. naval strategic requirements (i.e., dominance of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, Panama, and Hawaii). The key to the realization of Liu’s vision was an aircraft carrier, and Liu reportedly vowed in 1987, “I will not die with my eyes closed if I do not see a Chinese aircraft carrier in front of me.” Admiral Liu’s eyes can close now.</em></p>
<p><em>Much of the Asia-Pacific region, as well as the Asia-watching strategic community in the United States, is hotly debating the implications of Chinese aircraft carrier development. Admiral Robert Willard, commander of U.S. Pacific Command, said in April 2011 that he was “not concerned” about China’s first carrier going to sea, but allowed, “Based on the feedback that we received from our partners and allies in the Pacific, I think the change in perception by the region will be significant.” Australian brigadier general John Frewen contends, “The unintended consequences of Chinese carriers pose the greatest threat to regional harmony in the decades ahead.” Former director of Defense Intelligence Headquarters in the Japan Defense Agency Admiral Fumio Ota, JMSDF (Ret.), asserts, “The trials of China’s first aircraft carrier . . . mark the beginning of a major transition in naval doctrine. . . . Aircraft carriers will provide Beijing with tremendous capabilities and flexibility. . . . [A] Chinese carrier could pose a serious threat to Japanese territorial integrity. . . . China’s new aircraft carrier increases its tactical abilities and the chances of a strategic overreach. Other countries in the region should be worried.”</em></p>
<p><em>Yet while the Asia-Pacific region is hotly debating the implications of China’s aircraft carrier, there should be little surprise that a Chinese aircraft carrier has finally set sail. Indeed, what is most surprising about China’s aircraft carrier program is that it took this long to come to fruition. Given the discussions about an aircraft carrier that have percolated in China’s strategic community for decades, it should have been clear to the entire region that this was a long time coming. …</em></p>
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		<title>Japanese (日本語) Translation of “When Land Powers Look Seaward” Released</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/10/japanese-translation-of-when-land-powers-look-seaward-released/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/10/japanese-translation-of-when-land-powers-look-seaward-released/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 01 Oct 2011 17:25:51 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Japanese Language 日本語]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[
Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and Carnes Lord, “When Land Powers Look Seaward,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 137.4 (April 2011): 18-23.
Japanese translation now available: 大陸国家が海洋を目指す時.
How does a traditional land power like China make the transformation to major maritime player? Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and Carnes Lord of the Naval War College suggest that China can draw [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div>
<p>Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and Carnes Lord, <strong>“<a title="Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and Carnes Lord, “When Land Powers Look Seaward,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 137.4 (April 2011)." onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2011-04/when-land-powers-look-seaward');" href="http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2011-04/when-land-powers-look-seaward" target="_blank">When Land Powers Look Seaward</a>,”</strong> U.S. Naval Institute <em>Proceedings</em>, 137.4 (April 2011): 18-23.</p>
<p><a title="“When Land Powers Look Seaward”—Japanese Translation" onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.andrewerickson.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/When-Land-Powers-Look-Seaward_Proceedings_201104_Japanese.pdf');" href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/When-Land-Powers-Look-Seaward_Proceedings_201104_Japanese.pdf" target="_blank">Japanese</a> translation now available: <a title="“When Land Powers Look Seaward”—Japanese Translation" onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.andrewerickson.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/When-Land-Powers-Look-Seaward_Proceedings_201104_Japanese.pdf');" href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/When-Land-Powers-Look-Seaward_Proceedings_201104_Japanese.pdf" target="_blank">大陸国家が海洋を目指す時</a>.</p>
<p><em><a title="“When Land Powers Look Seaward”—Proceedings" onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2011-04/when-land-powers-look-seaward');" href="http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2011-04/when-land-powers-look-seaward" target="_blank">How does a traditional land power like China make the transformation to major maritime player? Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and Carnes Lord of the Naval War College suggest that China can draw lessons from the past. They point out that the Persians, Napoleonic France, and Imperial Germany all attempted to become sea powers. What can China learn from their experiences?</a></em></p>
<p><em>A continental-to-maritime transformation has been attempted frequently through the ages, but only rarely with success. The past offers lessons to a navally expanding China.</em></p>
<p><em>As European naval powers decline rapidly and the U.S. Navy diminishes quantitatively, China is going to sea. This ends a great historical trend that began six centuries ago, in which China withdrew inward and European naval expansion spread Western influence worldwide.</em></p>
<p><em>Now, for the first time in history, a robust and enduring debate pervades Beijing: Is China a continental power, a maritime power, or both? To what extent will its persisting political and strategic geography and the continentalist strategic culture it helped to form constrain its development as a maritime power? …</em></p>
<p><strong><a title="China Goes to Sea: Maritime Transformation in Comparative Historical Perspective" href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/2009/07/china-goes-to-sea-maritime-transformation-in-comparative-historical-perspective/" target="_blank">This article draws on the following book</a>: <a title="China Goes to Sea: Maritime Transformation in Comparative Historical Perspective" onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591142423?ie=UTF8&amp;tag=drandseri-20&amp;linkCode=as2&amp;camp=1789&amp;creative=9325&amp;creativeASIN=1591142423');" href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591142423?ie=UTF8&amp;tag=drandseri-20&amp;linkCode=as2&amp;camp=1789&amp;creative=9325&amp;creativeASIN=1591142423" target="_blank">Andrew S. Erickson, Lyle J. Goldstein, and Carnes Lord</a>, eds., </strong><a title="China Goes to Sea--USNI Webpage" onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.usni.org/store/item.asp?ITEM_ID=1789&amp;DEPARTMENT_ID=135');" href="http://www.usni.org/store/item.asp?ITEM_ID=1789&amp;DEPARTMENT_ID=135" target="_blank"><em><strong>China Goes to Sea: Maritime Transformation in Comparative Historical Perspective</strong></em></a><strong> (Annapolis, MD: </strong><a title="China Goest to Sea--Book News" onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/andrewserickson.files.wordpress.com/2009/08/china-goes-to-sea_information.pdf');" href="http://andrewserickson.files.wordpress.com/2009/08/china-goes-to-sea_information.pdf" target="_blank"><strong>Naval Institute Press</strong></a><strong>, July 2009).</strong></p>
<p><strong>Proceedings 4 月号　中国特集からの論文紹介</strong></p>
<p><strong>米海軍協会（Naval Institute）の機関誌プロシーディングス（Proceedings）の2011 年4 月号は、中国に焦点を置いた論文を掲載している。その中で特にユニークで興味深い次の論文２題を紹介する。</strong></p>
<p>大陸国家が海洋を目指す時<br />
　アンドリュー・エリクソン（Andrew Erickson）<br />
　ライル・ゴールドスタイン（Lyle Goldstein）<br />
　カーンズ・ロード（Carnes Lord）</p>
<p>これらの論文は、個人的な見解に基づくものであるが、著者は何れも米海軍大学に所属する新進気鋭の教授達であり、米海軍戦略のシンクタンクを担っていると目される。（編集部記）</p>
<p>要　旨</p>
<p>この論文は、中国のような伝統的大陸国家が、如何にして海洋国家への転換を果し得るかということをテーマとしている。そしてその論旨は、大陸国家から海洋国家への転換が、大昔から度々試みられてきたが殆ど成功していないという歴史的な事実を指摘しながらも、希有な成功例として古代ペルシャを挙げ、中国はこれらの歴史から教訓を導くことができることを示唆している。</p>
<p>抄　訳</p>
<p>大陸国家から海洋国家への転換が、大昔から度々試みられてきたが、殆ど成功した例がない。この史実が、海軍を膨張させている中国に教訓を与える。</p>
<p>欧州の海軍力が急速に衰退すると共に米海軍が量的に減り、そして中国が海に進出しつつある。このことは、6 世紀前に始まった非常に大きな歴史的傾向、つまり中国が内方に退き、欧州の海軍拡張が西洋化として世界的に広まった歴史的傾向が終わることである。</p>
<p>今、久々に難しい議論が北京に広がっている。中国は大陸国家か？ 海洋国家か？ 或いはその両方か？ そして、地勢に関しては、どの程度まで政治的かつ戦略的に固執し、大陸国家としての文化が、海洋国家としての発展を拘束するだろうか？</p>
<p>1　歴史的な洞察</p>
<p>古代ペルシャは、海洋国家としての伝統に欠けていたが、その指導者達は新しい考えに対して寛容であった。始め彼らは海を障壁と考えていたが、次第に物流・情報伝達（Communication）のハイウェーと見なすようになり、広範囲にわたり海軍の経験を積んでいった。彼らは、財源を多く充当することにより、歴史上初めて真に有効な海軍を構築した。その努力の規模と経済的活力は、今日の中国に匹敵するかもしれない。</p>
<p>オスマン帝国は、相当な資源を持っていたが、大陸主義国家の枠を克服できなかった。オスマン帝国の国境地域は脅威に曝され続けており、注意力と資源を使い果たしていた。オスマン帝国が使用した艪櫂のガレー船は、地中海において地上兵力を輸送するには適していたが、より広く、かつ、陸地による制約が少ないインド洋には適さなかった。オスマン帝国は、経済のグローバル化に追従できなかったため、初めての世界市場において、これを支配する機会を逸してしまった。</p>
<p>その後、海洋活動の中心が大西洋に移り現代に至る。この間、幾つかの大陸国家が海洋国家への転換を試みたが成功は極限られた。例えば、フランスは４度海洋国家への転換を試みたが何れも失敗した。仏中央政府の脆弱性と組織の混乱は、慢性的な問題であり、反商業的かつ反皇帝的な考え方がエリートの間に蔓延し、脆弱な財政システムは海軍の構築と維持を妨げ、陸・海軍の関係は、首尾一貫して無きに等しかった。このフランスのケースは、特に中国に対して重要な示唆を与えるかもしれない。先ずこの例は、内部の思想統一が、海洋国家へ向けた前提条件であることを示している。また中国はフランスの様に良港に恵まれ海へのアクセスも整っているが、内陸部の資本と内陸部の水路システムもまた、国家として海を越えた商業への依存度を軽減してきた。フランスと同様に中国は、比較的明確に三分された海洋の境界線を持ち、その夫々に配置された艦隊が、上手く連携して敵を打ち破ってきた歴史がある。両国とも、そのエリート達全体にわたり海軍力又は海洋への伸展に対する懐疑心又は徹底した敵意があったと共に、発作的な海軍開発の歴史がある。大陸主義についての上手い説明振りは、「エリートの積年の思い込みが、陸の国境に対する脅威感であり、またチャンスも陸の国境によって齎らされる」というものである。</p>
<p>ドイツ帝国の大洋への進出は、非友好国に制されたチョークポイントがあるために制約されてきた。ドイツは、この制約を回避するために海軍の整備を企てたが、その結果、国自身を拡張し過ぎてしまった。海軍は、単に大陸二正面への挑戦に報いることができなかったに過ぎない。このドイツのケースは、中国にも幾つか当て嵌まるものがあり、また一つの大きな相違点もある。両国とも古代海洋国家の伝統を持つが、何れも地政学的には新参者であった。両国とも包括的（経済的、技術的及び教育的）な中庸を以って海洋国家への転換を支えた。その中心は、海洋経済の資本家達に支持された政府主導の工業化であった。しかしながら、史実から結論付けられる大きな相違点は、中国が損害の大きい強国との戦争を避けてきたことである。</p>
<p>2　中国の経験</p>
<p>歴史家達は、中国が海洋を軽視してきたことを誇張する嫌いがある。南宋朝時代（1127-1279）には、その首都であり長江（Yangtze River）の海港である杭州（Hangzhou）があった。モンゴルが宋を倒し元朝（1271-1368）として継承した時代、大きな造船所が十分な海軍力を支えていた。モンゴルは、成功こそしなかったが中世時代に最大の水陸両用作戦を、日本、ベトナム及びジャワに対して行った。1300 年代、中国は、最先端の技術革新を造船と海軍装備に齎し、磁気羅針儀を発明した。</p>
<p>明朝時代には一貫して強力な海軍が存在した。明は中国南部の敵に対して海軍力を行使して広い範囲で戦勝し、初めてその地位を確立した。1363年のハ陽湖（Lake Poyang）の戦いは、数少ない中国の海戦の歴史の中で最も大きく決定的な戦いであり、両者とも数百隻の戦舟が含まれていた。</p>
<p>明時代における海洋活動は、宦官提督鄭和（Eunuch Admiral Zheng He）（1405-33） の7 度の航海でピークを迎える。永楽帝に支持された鄭和は、数百隻の船と数千人の人員、そしてあるものは440ft 以上の船長、2 万トンの排水量を持つ史上最大の木造船からなる遠征部隊を率いた。これらの航海は、交易を促進し、属国と宗主国の関係を再開させ、ハード及びソフト・パワーを顕示し、そして明の旗をマラッカ海峡、インド洋を越えペルシャ湾及びアフリカ東岸にまで翻させた。しかしながら鄭和の経費のかかる航海は、明に具体的な利益を齎したものの、危険と無駄が多いとする朝廷の官僚主義の反対により、永楽帝の死後彼の航海は、1 回だけで終わった。</p>
<p>1500 年代、過酷で不平等に強要される朝廷の勅令が、遠隔地に及ぶ海洋商業を妨げ、中国や海外の商人達を海賊に駆り立ててしまった。明は、総合力としても、また交易力としても依然として大きな海洋力を有していたにもかかわらず、海洋における主導権を失い、倭寇の襲撃が活発（1540 ～1580 年代）であった自国沿岸からこれらの海賊を駆逐し、海洋商業を阻害していた上記勅令を廃止するのに年月を要した。</p>
<p>清時代（1644-1912）の中国の地政学的方向は、北洋水師（Beiyang Navy）の長であった李鴻章（Li Hongzhang）と新疆奪回の遠征軍指揮官左宗棠（Zuo Zongtang）の論争で決した。清は、結局大陸国家を選択し、その後、国家と李将軍の双方ともがその結果に苦しめられた。清は、内部に政治的問題があったことに加えて、アジアに台頭したイギリス、フランス及び日本の海軍力の脅威に突然対決させられてしまった。清は、西欧列強の近代的な海軍による海洋での挑戦に対して無力であることを証明してしまった。最初のアヘン戦争（1839-42）では、中国の河川水路網の中心部に浸透した英国艦隊が、中国の国内通商を停止させると脅迫し、英国は、平和を請う中国政権から強制的に香港を獲得した。清は、最終的に海外から艦船を購入したが、信頼性の高いインフラもなく、また、戦闘に於いて効果的にこれらを運用するプロフェッショナルな海軍でもなく、悲惨な結果を招いた。</p>
<p>1880 年代には、中国の初期の艦隊がフランスに敗北し、中国のインドシナにおける伝統的な影響力を封じてしまった。中国は、この世紀最後の10 年間に、相当な海軍力を取得・整備したにもかかわらず、急激に近代化する近隣の島国にも対応できなくなり、日清戦争（1894-95）では屈辱的な敗北を喫し、台湾を失いそして朝鮮を日本の保護国に導いてしまった。</p>
<p>西欧の海洋列強からと同様に、北方からはロシアによる圧迫があり、清の朝廷は、通商権と領土譲与に関して高まる要求に対し、譲歩を余儀なくされた。1905 年、中国の与り知らぬところだが酷い被害を蒙ることになった日露戦争が、戦略的に重要な位置にあった旅順港（Port Arthur）に繋がる地域である中国の領土及び近隣水域で勃発した。</p>
<p>これら全ての事態の展開は、この王朝の基盤と、実際に皇帝自身の合法性を致命的に弱めてしまった。1911 年における清の没落は、長期にわたり内部に不安定を導いた。清の海洋における敗北は、斯様にしてアヘン戦争に始まり、引き続いて西洋海軍からの技術導入に失敗したことに由来し、このことは、ライバル日本と極めて対照的である。</p>
<p>3　大陸主義だった冷戦時代</p>
<p>冷戦の間、中国海軍の発展は、東アジアにおける海洋での米国の優位性に拘束され、後には、内政の失敗とソ連との関係悪化により拘束された。中国海軍は、主に地上兵力を支援してきたが、1988 年頃までは独自の戦略すらなかった。</p>
<p>中国共産党のエリート達を概観すると、陸上戦闘の経験によって鍛えられたものであり、海軍戦闘が如何なるものか、或いは、高度な技術が近代的な海軍戦闘（或いは航空戦闘）を決定的なものとするということを知っている党の主要な指揮官が殆どいなかった。毛沢東（Mao Zedong）の作った1949-50 年の台湾侵略計画でさえ、それが中国当時の或いは先々に予見しうる能力を遥かに超えたものであったことが、即座に露見した。</p>
<p>中国の朝鮮戦争への介入は、資源配分と指導者の注意を地上戦闘へと向きを変えた。中国が戦勝した（但し、準備不足、かつ、比類なく不利な地勢のインド陸軍に対して）1962 年のインドとの国境戦争は、毛沢東思想の中国が大陸に焦点を向けた他の理由となった。</p>
<p>何を以ってして北京政府が事実上ゼロから近代的な海軍を構築し得たかと言えば、それが唯一可能だったのは、1960 年に終了したソ連からの技術支援供与であった。</p>
<p>中国にとって安全保障上最大の脅威が、実際にソ連自身によって齎されたことが、1960 年代の過程の中で明らかになった。1969 年、核武装した2 国の共産主義国がシベリアにて連続的に国境での小競り合いを続け、より大きな紛争（この時、ソ連は、中国の核装備部隊と施設への先制攻撃を熟考していたらしい）を引き起こす可能性があった。冷戦が終わるまで、両国は、共通する国境線に沿って、相当な通常兵器部隊を維持した。中国経済の深刻な発達不全の下で、中国の軍事的資源は厳しく拘束され、そして、地上軍に最上位の優先度が与えられた。</p>
<p>その他に、冷戦時代の中国が陸上中心的であったことの要素があるとすれば、この時代に続いた北京政府の米国との機能上の友好関係であり、これは、アジア海域においてソ連海軍によって齎された些細な程ではないが、潜在的脅威に対して、それ以外に問題になってきたことより、楽観的な見方を中国に許容したのかもしれない。</p>
<p>4　海洋国家への方向転換</p>
<p>鄧小平（Deng Xiaoping）時代とその後を見るに、中国は最終的に永続的な海洋発展を遂げるという歴史的な困難を克服できるか？と言う疑問が残る。中国の海洋での通商の軌跡が、当にこの真相を示唆しているかもしれない。海洋発展が極めて活動的な商業海運と造船部門により導かれてきたことは、海軍発展に対して次々に大きな相乗効果を生み、それゆえ海に進出した他の大陸国家には往々にして欠けていた海洋国家への転換に対する健全な基盤を齎している。</p>
<p>ドイツやロシアのような大陸国家の造船産業と異なり、中国のそれは、国家に後押しされるというより、商業的利益に牽引されて駆り立てられたのである。中国は、世界的大造船業者として、総トン数の面で韓国を上回りつつあり、世界市場の約50％を制している。しかしながら、中国は、偉大な海洋国家であるオランダ、イギリス及びアメリカに追いつき、商業造船の全てのレベルにおいて優位を占め世界的な勢力にまで地位を上げるには、依然として程遠い。このレベルに到達するには、中国は、その市場シェアだけでなく、担当者レベルの品格及び革新能力も向上させなければならない。ただし、造船産業のグローバル化が、技術的進歩の新たな好機を齎すだろうけれども・・・・。</p>
<p>中国は、数世紀振りに、有利な条件下でこの30 年間の結果として運用可能な近代海軍を本気で開発している。冷戦の終焉とソ連の崩壊と共に、中国は、最早、内方のアジア国境線において存在した脅威に直面することはなくなった。その代わりに、最も重要な安全保障上の関心事は、明らかに海洋領域への転換の過程にある。第一に、海洋における地域国家との領域紛争が先鋭化する恐れがあり、それは1974 年、南シナ海の西沙諸島（Paracel Islands）を巡り中共（PRC）とベトナムとの衝突に始まった。第二に、民主主義に向いた台湾における国内政治の進展が、長年にわたり「一つの中国」政策を掲げて、事実上のそして法律上の台湾の独立に対抗してきた中国を追い込む恐れがあることである。同時に、台湾の擁護者として明らかに進んで行動する米国があり、特に、1995-96 年の台湾海峡危機において、中国は、東アジア海域における紛争に際し米国海軍が参戦するという決定的な可能性に直面させられた。</p>
<p>中国海軍は、強力な接近拒否能力（Anti-Access Capabilities）持つ地域海軍力になりつつある。しかしながら、風説の域を超えないが、近接した周辺海域を大幅に超えてハイエンドの戦闘能力を発揮するに必要な資源と人材への投資はしてこなかった。</p>
<p>5　地理学的教訓</p>
<p>中国及びその他の大陸国家が海への進出を試みた歴史を調べると、普遍的な教訓がある。</p>
<p>第一に、地理条件が重要である。例え技術的進歩の最中でもだ。大陸国家は、一般に、その地理的条件から不利益を蒙ってきた。そして、その動かしようのない地理的不利から脱却すべく、野心的で戦略的なプロジェクトに度々挑戦してきた（中国が構築した万里の長城、京杭大運河及び三峡ダム、そして現在建設中のビルマ縦断石油パイプラインである）。中国は、合理的に観て多くの点で海洋を利用する権利を有しているが、中国と海で接する近隣諸国の全てと未解決の利権問題を抱えている。中国は、依然としてその多くの戦略的思想家の観点からすると“ 島々の鎖” で縁取りされたところに留まっている。</p>
<p>陸の国境は、また大きな潜在的挑戦を象徴している。中国は、今は安定してものの、インド及びベトナムとは領土戦争を戦ってきており、そして、ロシアとは今後不和に直面するかも知れない。新疆（Xinjiang）とチベットにおいて進行中の民族の自治・分離主義者の動きも、心配の種であろう。</p>
<p>第二は、海洋国家への転換は、困難かつ危険な過程があり、これを十分に成し得た近代の大陸国家はない。機会費用が大きく、そして勇気を失わせるような巨大な勢力が多々存在する。全ての歴史の中で、海洋国家への転換に成功し不朽にしたのは、ペルシャとローマだけである。これらの場合でも、帝国は、元の大陸主義国家としての痕跡を残しており、少なくともある程度は、「一度大陸国家であったものは、常に大陸国家である」。海洋国家への転換が完全に実現したことを示すのは難しい。ペルシャ人は、彼らの海軍を攻撃的な手段として実際には決して使用せず、むしろ、今日の統合海上作戦と呼ばれるべきものに適応させ、大規模なペルシャ陸軍を敵の沿岸に沿って前進させるために彼等の艦隊を後方支援や、側面防御に充当した。ローマ人も常設艦隊を創設（帝国の下でのみ生起）し、海上警備体制を確立したのは遅かった。</p>
<p>第三に、偉大な勢力が形成されることについての地政・戦略的見解としては、地理的な適正性によるだけでなく、経済的要素によっても形成される。天然資源とそれを利用した生産によって生じた富の総計は、人口を確かなレベルに維持し、財政的資源と産業技術の組み合わせと相俟って軍事的能力になる。古代ペルシャは、大きな富が大きな海軍を獲得できることを最初に示した。中国は、資源とこの様な資源配分を可能とする技術を持っている。ソ連や他の大陸国家の嘗ての状況とは異なり、中国は、強力な経済的基盤と共に包括的な国力を有している。海軍の発展に関する長期的な取り組みは、経済的にも合理的と評価される。疑問は、中国によるその様な能力の獲得が、それを脅威とみなす国際的な反響と同様に他に差し迫った要求のある中で、事実賢明かどうかということだ。</p>
<p>第四の重大な要素は、国家の戦略的見通しである。これは、国際的及び国内的考察によって形成されるものであり、一義的には政権存続の問題である。複数の対立する問題を引き起こす場合は、国家としてバランスを保ち、戦略目標の優先順位を決めることが往々にして難しい。中国の場合、長く続いてきた大陸主義者達の国内安定への執心が、昨今の経済発展によって徐々に均衡が保たれ、偉大な力となった地位が「屈辱の世紀」を払拭し、中国を正当な位置に戻すだろう。</p>
<p>第五は、リーダーシップであり、これは恐らく、海洋国家への転換を活性化する或いは欲求不満に陥らせる最も重要な要素であろう。鄭和を活性化し、清の改革者達を欲求不満に陥らせたものである。劉華清上将（Admiral Liu Huaqing）は、鄧小平の支持を得て、限られてはいたが人民解放軍海軍の地位を段階的に向上させた。中国の指導者達は、通商の保護と海上交通路の重要性に関わるアルフレッド・セイヤー・マハンの考えを明らかに高く評価しているようだ。今日、中国における意見の全体的傾向としては、長い歴史の中で何時の時代よりも、海洋国家への転換に対して好意的である。しかしながら、反対に作用する要素も残っている。</p>
<p>6　海洋国家への転換を果たすか</p>
<p>最終的に成功する海洋国家への転換は、海軍戦略と運用上の術力によって具現化される。大陸国家は、大抵海洋国家に適合することはできず、異なる取り組み方をする。オスマン帝国は、地中海の島々を獲得するために水陸両用の沿岸戦作戦を用いた。中国に当て嵌めれば、これは、台湾、澎湖諸島（Penghus）、金門島（Jinmen）及び馬祖列島（Mazu）を除き国家主義者を全ての島々から追放した中国の国内での軍事作戦（1949-55）に相当する。中国の短/ 中距離弾道ミサイル開発（例えばDF-21D 対艦弾道ミサイル）は、｢海を制するに陸を用いる｣というこの取り組みの最新版であることを幾分示している。中国には継続した制約があり海軍の発展を独特な中国的特徴にしてきたが、これは最早致命的なものにはならない。中国の海軍戦闘は、米国のものと極めて異なって見えるかもしれないが、中国独自の状況に適用する場合には、成功するかもしれない。</p>
<p>以前に海洋国家たるべく試みたことがある大陸国家の経験は、概して欠点とされてきた。従って中国は、戦略的に逆風の中を帆走しているようなものだ。北京政府内での議論の下、この様な転換の残りの部分がどのようなるかは、大変幅広いものがある。しかし、依然として中国は明らかに海に向かっている。中国は、今、海洋国家への転換を目指した嘗ての前任者達には一般に欠けていた次に示す幾つかの利点に恵まれている。</p>
<p>　・逞しい海洋経済<br />
　・活動的な造船産業<br />
　・大陸の近隣諸国のほぼ全てと国境線が確定<br />
　・ 海洋発展を自然現象として支持し法的拘束をしない指導者</p>
<p>中国は、正に方向転換をしたところであり、本物の海洋国家へと転換の途次にある。もしこれが、本当にそのケースだとすれば、画期的なことである。もし、これが唯一無二でないとしても、この2 千年の歴史の中で、重要な出来事に違いない。中国は歴史から教訓を学んできただろが、また、その過ちを繰り返すように運命付けられてきたわけでもない。</p>
<p>（文責・挿入写真等　編集部）</p></div>
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		<title>Energy Nationalism Goes to Sea in Asia</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/09/energy-nationalism-goes-to-sea-in-asia/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 20 Sep 2011 12:17:28 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.andrewerickson.com/?p=4847</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Gabe Collins and Andrew S. Erickson, “Energy Nationalism Goes to Sea in Asia,” in Gabe Collins, Andrew S. Erickson, Yufan Hao, Mikkal E. Herberg, Llewelyn Hughes, Weihua Liu, and Jane Nakano, Asia’s Rising Energy and Resource Nationalism: Implications for the United States, China, and the Asia-Pacific Region, NBR Special Report #31 (Seattle, WA: National Bureau [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Gabe Collins and Andrew S. Erickson, <strong>“<a title="Energy Nationalism Goes to Sea in Asia" href="http://www.nbr.org/publications/specialreport/pdf/Free/SR31_EnergySecurity.pdf" target="_blank">Energy Nationalism Goes to Sea in Asia</a>,”</strong><strong> </strong>in Gabe Collins, Andrew S. Erickson, Yufan Hao, Mikkal E. Herberg, Llewelyn Hughes, Weihua Liu, and Jane Nakano, <a title="Asia’s Rising Energy and Resource Nationalism: Implications for the United States, China, and the Asia-Pacific Region" href="http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=538" target="_blank"><strong><em>A</em></strong><strong><em>sia’</em></strong><strong><em>s R</em></strong><strong><em>ising </em></strong><strong><em>Energy and Resource Nationalism: Implications for the United States, China, and the Asia-Pacific Region</em></strong></a>, NBR Special Report #31<strong> </strong>(Seattle, WA: National Bureau of Asian Research, September 2011), 15-28.</p>
<p>From <em>Mikkal E. Herberg, </em><strong>“Introduction: Asia’s Rising Energy and Resource Nationalism,” </strong>4-5:</p>
<p><em>Andrew S. Erickson from the U.S. Naval War College and Gabe Collins from China SignPost provide an excellent discussion of the growth in maritime oil and gas transit flows from the Persian Gulf and Africa through the sea lanes of Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean to China and the rest of Asia. They highlight how energy demand and transit have become important new drivers for naval expansion and rivalry in the region’s sea lanes. Energy security has two important impacts on the South China Sea region. The first is that the potential for large oil and gas resources under the sea bed is adding fuel to already serious disagreements over competing sovereignty claims in the South China Sea. The second issue is that as China’s dependence on oil imports rises dramatically, Beijing is increasingly uncomfortable with the U.S. Navy controlling regional sea lanes. Evidence suggests that this discomfort is a key factor in motivating China’s naval modernization and growing capabilities, which are in turn driving naval expansion by other regional powers and presenting new challenges for U.S. naval strategy.</em></p>
<p><strong>EXECUTIVE SUMMARY</strong></p>
<p>This essay argues that concerns about securing offshore energy production and the sea lanes used to import oil and liquefied natural gas are motivating naval modernization in the Asia-Pacific and creating associated security risks for the entire region.</p>
<p><strong>Main Argument</strong></p>
<p>Maritime disputes in the Asia-Pacific region have historically stemmed from unsettled territorial and maritime claims. In the past decade, however, concerns over maritime energy security have increasingly inflamed these disputes. Rising energy prices, fears of supply scarcity, and rapid increases in oil-import dependency in China and other regional powers such as Indonesia have helped drive resource nationalism among regional governments. Such nationalism incentivizes states to build naval forces capable of deterring rival claimants in potentially resource-rich areas, as well as in some cases threats to major maritime energy transport corridors. As energy security becomes a more important driver of regional arms procurement, it is critically important for states to understand that the high-probability threats to maritime energy security are nonstate threats that are best addressed cooperatively.</p>
<p><strong>Policy Implications</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Extreme weather, seismic activity, and nonstate threats such as terrorism are the highest- probability threats to maritime energy security in the Asia-Pacific region. Thus, policies based on cooperation will be the most effective in enhancing regional energy security.</li>
<li>Greater cooperation can also help change regional perceptions in ways that substantially reduce the chance of armed conflict between states, which is the lowest-probability threat, but the one with the highest potential impact on maritime energy security.</li>
<li>Regional civil maritime organizations offer a more effective and less-politicized vehicle for engagement than navies do. Major energy producers and consumers can also work to increase “maritime domain awareness” by integrating information on key energy assets and the locations of weather, piracy, and terrorist threats along major sea lanes and production areas. The system could also include a joint pirate threat database to plot locations of attacks and anticipate future trouble spots by analyzing patterns of pirate behavior.</li>
</ul>
<p>Asian countries with offshore energy production interests in disputed areas should consider creating joint development zones.</p>
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		<title>China’s S-Shaped Threat</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/09/chinas-s-shaped-threat/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/09/chinas-s-shaped-threat/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 06 Sep 2011 13:25:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[The Diplomat]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.andrewerickson.com/?p=4728</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “China’s S-Shaped Threat,” The Diplomat, 6 September 2011.
Analysts of international relations have focused lately on China’s potential challenges to the international system. But China’s greatest challenges may in fact be internal. The implications will be significant.
China is assumed by many to be destined to overtake the US as the world’s [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, <strong>“<a title="Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “China’s S-Shaped Threat,” The Diplomat, 6 September 2011." href="http://the-diplomat.com/2011/09/06/chinas-s-shaped-threat/" target="_blank">China’s S-Shaped Threat</a>,” </strong><em>The Diplomat</em>, 6 September 2011.</p>
<p>Analysts of international relations have focused lately on China’s potential challenges to the international system. But China’s greatest challenges may in fact be internal. The implications will be significant.</p>
<p><em>China is assumed by many to be destined to overtake the US as the world’s leading power. But history shows the dangers of extrapolating from today’s growth numbers.</em></p>
<p><em>According to the US National Intelligence Council (NIC), ‘<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/mar/28/china-us-publisher-scientific-papers" target="_blank">China is poised to have more impact on the world over the next 20 years than any other country</a>.’ China is already the world’s second largest economy, second largest energy importer, largest natural resource importer by volume, and largest emitter of greenhouse gasses. Indeed, following the S&amp;P downgrading of the US credit rating to AA+, Beijing feels empowered to declare that it ‘has every right now to demand the United States to address its structural debt problems.’</em></p>
<p><em>However, despite its astute policy navigation, efforts to guide national development, and claims of exceptionalism, China isn’t immune to larger patterns of economics and history. And those patterns tell us that China faces costly internal and external challenges that will hinder its ability to avoid the S-Curve-shaped growth slowdown that so many previous great powers have experienced, and that so many observers believe the United States is undergoing today.</em></p>
<p><em>Where China is headed domestically and internationally has major implications across the board for virtually everyone on this planet. The country has risen at a rate beyond even its leaders’ expectations over the past three decades, and a power shift is afoot in the international system. The fully unipolar system that persisted from 1989 to roughly 2008 is no more. To many, this signals a clear power transition in which China is poised to overtake the United States as the world’s foremost power. Estimates emerge constantly as to when China’s economy will become larger than that of the United States, and it’s assumed that China’s diplomatic, information, and military aspects of national power will grow in proportion.</em></p>
<p><em>But many policymakers and economists question whether China’s current growth trajectory can be maintained in the face of clear structural challenges that include pollution, corruption, chronic diseases, water shortages, growing internal security spending, and an aging population—all factors that feed off of one another and exact increasingly large costs for the Chinese state and economy. …</em></p>
<p style="TEXT-ALIGN: left"><strong>For the full-length report on which this article is based, see Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “</strong><a onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/China-SignPost_44_S-Curves_Slowing-Chinese-Econ-Natl-Power-Growth_20110815.pdf');" href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/China-SignPost_44_S-Curves_Slowing-Chinese-Econ-Natl-Power-Growth_20110815.pdf" target="_blank"><strong>China’s S-Curve Trajectory: Structural factors will likely slow the growth of China’s economy and comprehensive national power</strong></a><strong>,” </strong><a title="Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “China’s S-Curve Trajectory: Structural factors will likely slow the growth of China’s economy and comprehensive national power,” China SignPost™ (洞察中国), No. 44 (15 August 2011)." href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/2011/08/china%e2%80%99s-s-curve-trajectory-structural-factors-will-likely-slow-the-growth-of-china%e2%80%99s-economy-and-comprehensive-national-power/" target="_blank"><strong><em>China SignPost</em>™ (洞察中国), No. 44 (15 August 2011)</strong></a><strong>.</strong></p>
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		<title>Did China Tip Cyber War Hand?</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/08/did-china-tip-cyber-war-hand/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/08/did-china-tip-cyber-war-hand/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 25 Aug 2011 14:58:22 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[The Diplomat]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “Did China Tip Cyber War Hand?” The Diplomat, 25 August 2011.
A programme broadcast on the military channel of China’s state TV raises new questions about Beijing’s support for cyber attacks.
Amid growing US concerns over ongoing Chinese cyber attacks, attribution remains the most complex issue. At the open source level at [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<h3>Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “<a title="Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “Did China Tip Cyber War Hand?” The Diplomat, 25 August 2011." href="http://the-diplomat.com/2011/08/25/did-china-tip-cyber-war-hand/" target="_blank">Did China Tip Cyber War Hand?</a>” <em>The Diplomat</em>, 25 August 2011.</h3>
<h3><em>A programme broadcast on the military channel of China’s state TV raises new questions about Beijing’s support for cyber attacks.</em></h3>
<p><em>Amid growing US concerns over ongoing Chinese cyber attacks, attribution remains the most complex issue. At the open source level at least, it has been hard to find a ‘smoking cursor.’ That is, until the broadcast of a recent cyber warfare programme on the military channel of China’s state TV network.</em></p>
<p><em>The programme appeared to show dated computer screenshots of a Chinese military institute conducting a rudimentary type of cyber attack against a US-based dissident entity. However modest, ambiguous—and, from China’s perspective, defensive—this is possibly the first direct piece of visual evidence from an official Chinese government source to undermine Beijing’s official claims that it never engages in overseas hacking of any kind for government purposes. Clearly, Washington and Beijing have much to discuss candidly here if they are to avoid dangerous strategic tension.</em></p>
<p><em>China Central Television 7 (CCTV-7) is China’s official channel for military and agricultural issues. As part of its wide-ranging coverage, every Saturday it runs a 20-minute programme called ‘Military Science and Technology.’ It’s always worth watching, given the range of timely topics covered and the detailed analyses offered by Chinese specialists. The July 16 edition was particularly so.</em></p>
<p><em>Entitled ‘The Internet Storm is Coming’ (网络风暴来了), it begins with a broad discussion of cyber attacks. It showcases a statement by then-US Defense Secretary Robert Gates at the Shangri-La Dialogue in Singapore in June. This important international conference was also attended by Gates’ Chinese counterpart Gen. Liang Guanglie. Emphasizing that the United States was extremely concerned about the cyber attacks that it was continually suffering from, Gates suggested that some attacks could rise to the level of an act of war and prompt the United States to respond with force.</em></p>
<p><em>Chinese Military expert Du Wenlong then highlights President Barack Obama’s </em><a href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-on-Securing-Our-Nations-Cyber-Infrastructure/" target="_blank"><em>May 2009 remarks</em></a><em> in which he emphasized the importance of securing the nation’s digital infrastructure and declared it a strategic national asset. Du explains that Washington would regard some types of cyber attacks as acts of war because modern military operations rely heavily on digital networks and cyberspace: ‘networks have become the basis for military action and for winning a war.’ Du appears to be well acquainted with his subject matter, and provides cogent explanations of complex cyber issues.</em></p>
<p><em>But here is where the programme deviated from its typical theoretical coverage of broad military trends for six seconds to offer an unusually-specific Chinese example. An initial screen was labelled ‘Vulnerability Report’ in large letters; a narrator intones that ‘there are many Internet attack methods.’</em></p>
<p><em>As the narrator discusses a means of implementing hard and soft cyber/network attacks, footage displays what appears to be a human-operated cursor using a software application with Chinese character labelling to launch a ‘distributed denial-of-service’ (DDOS) attack.</em></p>
<p><em>This particular DDOS is against a website formerly affiliated with the dissident religious group Falun Gong. Under large characters reading ‘Select Attack Target,’ the screenshot shows ‘Falun Gong in North America’ being chosen. Here it must be emphasized that DDOS attacks are generally extremely rudimentary. As will be explained later, if the footage in question was real, it’s likely a decade old.</em></p>
<p><em>Drawing on a ‘Falun Gong website list’ encoded in the software, the cursor selects the ‘Minghui Website’ from a pull-down menu of Falun Gong websites. Minghui.org is the main website of Falun Gong’s spiritual practice, and hence a logical target.</em></p>
<p><em>Hovering over a software window labelled ‘IP Address of a Website Chosen to Attack,’ the cursor selects the IP address 138.26.72.17. This was once linked to the University of Alabama in Birmingham. According to the Falun Gong-supporter-founded</em> <a href="http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/china-news/slip-up-in-chinese-military-tv-show-reveals-more-than-intended-60619.html" target="_blank">Epoch Times</a><em>, a UAB network administrator ‘recalled that there had been a Falun Gong practitioner at the university some years ago who held informal Falun Gong meetings on campus. They couldn’t confirm whether that individual used the IP address in question, and said it had not been used since 2010.’ PC World </em><a href="http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/238655/china_hacking_video_shows_glimpse_of_falun_gong_attack_tool.html" target="_blank"><em>added</em></a><em> that the site was created ‘by “a former student and was decommissioned in 2001 as it violated our acceptable use policy,” according to Kevin Storr, a UAB spokesman.’</em></p>
<p><em>During this sequence, some interesting characters remained at the top of the screen: ‘Attack system…PLA Electronic Engineering Institute.’ …</em></p>
<p><strong>For full text of the report summarized here, see Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “</strong><a onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/China-SignPost_46_China-Cyberwarfare_CCTV7_20110824.pdf');" href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/China-SignPost_46_China-Cyberwarfare_CCTV7_20110824.pdf" target="_blank"><strong>A Smoking Cursor? New Window Opens on China’s Potential Cyberwarfare Development: CCTV 7 program raises new questions about Beijing’s support for hacking</strong></a><strong>,” <a title="Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “A Smoking Cursor? New Window Opens on China’s Potential Cyberwarfare Development: CCTV 7 program raises new questions about Beijing’s support for hacking,” China SignPost™ (洞察中国), No. 46 (24 August 2011)." onclick="javascript:pageTracker._trackPageview('/outgoing/www.chinasignpost.com/2011/08/a-smoking-cursor-new-window-opens-on-china%e2%80%99s-potential-cyberwarfare-development-cctv-7-program-raises-new-questions-about-beijing%e2%80%99s-support-for-hacking/');" href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/2011/08/a-smoking-cursor-new-window-opens-on-china%e2%80%99s-potential-cyberwarfare-development-cctv-7-program-raises-new-questions-about-beijing%e2%80%99s-support-for-hacking/" target="_blank"><em>China SignPost</em>™ (洞察中国), No. 46 (24 August 2011)</a>.</strong></p>
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		<title>China Realizes Carrier Dream</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/08/china-realizes-carrier-dream/</link>
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		<pubDate>Wed, 10 Aug 2011 14:47:17 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[The Diplomat]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “China Realizes Carrier Dream,” The Diplomat, 10 August 2011.
Following is a guest entry from Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, co-founders of China Sign Post. 
 
China’s Navy has finally realized its longtime dream of obtaining an aircraft carrier and putting it to sea. It has been a long road from the Guomindang’s [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, <strong>“<a title="Andrew Erickson and Gabe Collins, “China Realizes Carrier Dream,” The Diplomat, 10 August 2011." href="http://the-diplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2011/08/10/chinas-realizes-carrier-dream/" target="_blank">China Realizes Carrier Dream</a></strong><strong>,” </strong><em>The Diplomat</em>,<strong><em> </em></strong>10 August 2011.</p>
<p><em>Following is a guest entry from Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, co-founders of <a href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/">China Sign Post</a>. </em></p>
<p><em> </em></p>
<p><em>China’s Navy has finally realized its longtime dream of obtaining an aircraft carrier and putting it to sea. It has been a long road from the Guomindang’s 1929 rejection of naval commander Chen Shaokuan’s proposal for building a Chinese aircraft carrier to the acquisition and refitting of the former Ukrainian carrier Varyag in Dalian Naval Shipyard, a task essentially as complex as building a carrier from scratch.</em></p>
<p><em>On August 10, 82 years after Adm. Chen’s proposal, China’s first carrier disappeared into the fog under tight security at 0540 local time from Dalian Harbour’s Xianglujiao Port in northeast Liaoning Province to begin sea trials. Liaoning Maritime Safety Authority has declared a temporary exclusion zone in a rectangular sea area nearby.</em></p>
<p><em>A newly-wed couple wants a ‘starter home,’ a new great power wants a ‘starter carrier.’ China’s ‘starter carrier’ is of very limited military utility, and will serve primarily to confer prestige though naval diplomacy, to help master basic operational procedures, and to project a bit of power—perhaps especially vis-à-vis smaller neighbours in the South China Sea. Having avoided the winds and waves recently sent to the Yellow Sea by </em><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8687265/Typhoon-Muifa-sweeps-past-Shanghai.html"><em>Typhoon Muifa</em></a><em>, the carrier will subject China to even more diplomatic turbulence as its neighbours react to the reality that their giant neighbour now has a basically-functioning carrier. …</em></p>
<p><strong>Further Reading:</strong></p>
<p><strong> </strong></p>
<p><strong>For the longer analysis on which this post is based, see Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “<a href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/2011/08/china%e2%80%99s-%e2%80%98starter-carrier%e2%80%99-goes-to-sea/" target="_blank">China’s ‘Starter Carrier’ Goes to Sea</a>,” <em>China SignPost</em>™ (</strong><strong>洞察中国</strong><strong>), No. 43 (9 August 2011).</strong></p>
<p><strong> </strong></p>
<p><strong>For an assessment of the larger implications of China’s deck aviation development, see <a href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/06/should-we-be-afraid-of-china%e2%80%99s-new-aircraft-carrier-not-yet/" target="_blank">Abraham M. Denmark, Andrew S. Erickson, and Gabriel Collins</a>, “<a href="http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/06/27/should_we_be_afraid_of_chinas_new_aircraft_carrier" target="_blank">Should We Be Afraid of China’s New Aircraft Carrier? Not yet.</a>,” <em>Foreign Policy</em>, 27 June 2011.</strong></p>
<p><strong>For operational aspects of China’s first carrier-capable aircraft, see Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “<a href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/China-SignPost_38_-J15-Flying-Shark-Analysis_20110607.pdf" target="_blank">Flying Shark” Gaining Altitude: How might new J-15 strike fighter improve China’s maritime air warfare ability?</a>,” <em>China SignPost™</em> (</strong><strong>洞察中国</strong><strong>), No. 38 (7 June 2011).</strong></p>
<p><strong>For drivers and constraints concerning Chinese deck aviation, see Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “<a href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/China-SignPost_35_Strategic-Pros-and-Cons-of-China-Carriers_201105182.pdf" target="_blank">The ‘Flying Shark’ Prepares to Roam the Seas: Strategic pros and cons of China’s aircraft carrier program</a>,” <em>China SignPost™</em> (</strong><strong>洞察中国</strong><strong>), No. 35 (18 May 2011).</strong></p>
<p><strong>For relevant defense industrial factors, see Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “<a href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/China-SignPost_12_LNG-carriers-to-Aircraft-carriers_2010-12-18.pdf" target="_blank">LNG Carriers to Aircraft Carriers? Assessing the potential for crossover between civilian and military shipbuilding in China</a>,” <a href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/2010/12/lng-carriers-to-aircraft-carriers-assessing-the-potential-for-crossover-between-civilian-and-military-shipbuilding-in-china/" target="_blank"><em>China SignPost</em>™ (洞察中国), No. 12 (18 December 2010)</a>.</strong></p>
<p><strong>For an early assessment of Chinese aircraft carrier options, see <a href="http://www.andrewerickson.com/2006/10/china%e2%80%99s-aircraft-carrier-dilemma/" target="_blank">Andrew S. Erickson and Andrew R. Wilson</a>, “</strong><a href="http://andrewserickson.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/erickson-article_erickson-wilson_chinas-aircraft-carrier-dilemma_nwcr.pdf" target="_blank"><strong>China’s Aircraft Carrier Dilemma</strong></a><strong>,” <em>Naval War College Review</em>, 59. 4 (Autumn 2006): 13-45.</strong></p>
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		<title>China’s Jet Engine Future</title>
		<link>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/07/china%e2%80%99s-jet-engine-future/</link>
		<comments>http://www.andrewerickson.com/2011/07/china%e2%80%99s-jet-engine-future/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 14 Jul 2011 01:53:54 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>andrewserickson</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Journal Articles]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[The Diplomat]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “China’s Jet Engine Future,” The Diplomat, 13 July 2011.
Following is a guest entry from Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, co-founders of China Sign Post.
China’s military jet engine capability is increasing at a rapid pace, with implications not only for China’s independent military capabilities, but also for the global defence industry. Yet [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, <strong>“<a title="Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “China’s Jet Engine Future,” The Diplomat, 13 July 2011." href="http://the-diplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2011/07/13/chinas-jet-engine-future/" target="_blank">China’s Jet Engine Future</a>,”</strong> <em>The Diplomat</em>, 13 July 2011.</p>
<p><em style="PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; BORDER-RIGHT-WIDTH: 0px; BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent; MARGIN: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; BORDER-TOP-WIDTH: 0px; BORDER-BOTTOM-WIDTH: 0px; FONT-SIZE: 13px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-LEFT-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial">Following is a guest entry from Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, co-founders o</em>f <em style="PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; BORDER-RIGHT-WIDTH: 0px; BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent; MARGIN: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; OUTLINE-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; BORDER-TOP-WIDTH: 0px; BORDER-BOTTOM-WIDTH: 0px; FONT-SIZE: 13px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-LEFT-WIDTH: 0px; PADDING-TOP: 0px; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial"><a style="PADDING-BOTTOM: 0px; BORDER-RIGHT-WIDTH: 0px; BACKGROUND-COLOR: transparent; MARGIN: 0px; OUTLINE-STYLE: none; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; BORDER-TOP-WIDTH: 0px; BORDER-BOTTOM-WIDTH: 0px; COLOR: #cc0000; FONT-SIZE: 13px; VERTICAL-ALIGN: baseline; BORDER-LEFT-WIDTH: 0px; TEXT-DECORATION: none; PADDING-TOP: 0px; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial" href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/" target="_blank">China Sign Post</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>China’s military jet engine capability is increasing at a rapid pace, with implications not only for China’s independent military capabilities, but also for the global defence industry. Yet China also faces major impediments in achieving its strategic aim of establishing itself as an independent manufacturer in one of aerospace’s most complex engineering technologies: high-performance turbofan engines. Our recent paper, <a href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/2011/06/jet-engine-development-in-china-indigenous-high-performance-turbofans-are-a-final-step-toward-fully-independent-fighter-production" target="_blank">Jet Engine Development in China</a>, found that China’s progress is uneven but that the resources being devoted to the task will likely result in significant strides that will have profound strategic implications. …</em></p>
<p><strong>This is an edited and abridged version of a longer analysis. For the full version, see Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “<a title="Gabe Collins and Andrew Erickson, “Jet Engine Development in China: Indigenous high-performance turbofans are a final step toward fully independent fighter production,” China SignPost™ (洞察中国), No. 39 (26 June 2011)." href="http://www.chinasignpost.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/China-SignPost_39_-China-Tactical-Aircraft-Jet-Engine-Deep-Dive_20110626.pdf" target="_blank">Jet Engine Development in China: Indigenous high-performance turbofans are a final step toward fully independent fighter production</a>,” <em>China SignPost</em>™ (洞察中国), No. 39 (26 June 2011).</strong></p>
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